matter
Matter is anything that occupies
space and has rest
mass (or
invariant mass). It is a general term for the substance of which all
physical objects consist.
[1][2] Typically, matter includes
atoms and other
particles which have mass. Mass is said by some to be the amount of matter in an object and
volume is the amount of space occupied by an object, but this definition confuses mass and matter, which are not the same.
[3] Different fields use the term in different and sometimes incompatible ways; there is no single agreed scientific meaning of the word "matter," even though the term "mass" is better-defined.
Contrary to the previous view that equates mass and matter, a major difficulty in defining matter consists in deciding what forms of energy (all of which have mass) are not matter. In general, massless particles such as photons and gluons are not considered forms of matter, even though when these particles are trapped in systems at rest, they contribute energy and mass to them. For example, almost 99% of the mass of ordinary atomic matter consists of mass associated with the energy contributed by the gluons and the kinetic energy of the quarks which make up nucleons. In this view, most of the mass of ordinary "matter" consists of mass which is not contributed by matter particles.
For much of the history of the
natural sciences people have contemplated the exact nature of matter. The idea that matter was built of discrete building blocks, the so-called
particulate theory of matter, was first put forward by the Greek philosophers
Leucippus (~490 BC) and
Democritus (~470–380 BC).
[4] Over time an increasingly fine structure for matter was discovered:
objects are made from
molecules, molecules consist of atoms, which in turn consist of interacting
subatomic particles like
protons and
electrons.
[5][6]
Historical development
[edit]Origins
The
pre-Socratics were among the first recorded speculators about the underlying nature of the visible world.
Thales (c. 624 BC–c. 546 BC) regarded water as the fundamental material of the world.
Anaximander (c. 610 BC–c. 546 BC) posited that the basic material was wholly characterless or limitless: the Infinite (
apeiron).
Anaximenes (flourished 585 BC, d. 528 BC) posited that the basic stuff was
pneuma or air.
Heraclitus (c. 535–c. 475 BC) seems to say the basic element is fire, though perhaps he means that all is change.
Empedocles (c. 490–430 BC) spoke of four
elements of which everything was made: earth, water, air, and fire.
[12] Meanwhile,
Parmenides argued that change does not exist, and
Democritus argued that everything is composed of minuscule, inert bodies of all shapes called atoms, a philosophy called
atomism. All of these notions had deep philosophical problems.
[13]
Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) was the first to put the conception on a sound philosophical basis, which he did in his natural philosophy, especially in
Physics book I.
[14] He adopted as reasonable suppositions the four
Empedoclean elements, but added a fifth,
aether. Nevertheless these elements are not basic in Aristotle's mind. Rather they, like everything else in the visible world, are composed of the basic
principles matter and form.
The word Aristotle uses for matter,
ὑλη (hyle or hule), can be literally translated as wood or timber, that is, "raw material" for building.
[15] Indeed, Aristotle's conception of matter is intrinsically linked to something being made or composed. In other words, in contrast to the early modern conception of matter as simply occupying space, matter for Aristotle is definitionally linked to process or change: matter is what underlies a change of substance.
For example, a horse eats grass: the horse changes the grass into itself; the grass as such does not persist in the horse, but some aspect of it—its matter—does. The matter is not specifically described (e.g., as
atoms), but consists of whatever persists in the change of substance from grass to horse. Matter in this understanding does not exist independently (i.e., as a
substance), but exists interdependently (i.e., as a "principle") with form and only insofar as it underlies change. It can be helpful to conceive of the relationship of matter and form as very similar to that between parts and whole. For Aristotle, matter as such can only
receive actuality from form; it has no activity or actuality in itself, similar to the way that parts as such only have their existence
in a whole (otherwise they would be independent wholes).
[edit]Early modernity
René Descartes (1596–1650) originated the modern conception of matter. He was primarily a geometer. Instead of, like Aristotle, deducing the existence of matter from the physical reality of change, Descartes arbitrarily postulated matter to be an abstract, mathematical substance that occupies space:
The continuity and difference between Descartes' and Aristotle's conceptions is noteworthy. In both conceptions, matter is passive or inert. In the respective conceptions matter has different relationships to intelligence. For Aristotle, matter and intelligence (form) exist together in an interdependent relationship, whereas for Descartes, matter and intelligence (mind) are definitionally opposed, independent
substances.
[19]For Descartes, matter has only the property of extension, so its only activity aside from locomotion is to exclude other bodies
[17]: this is the
mechanical philosophy. Descartes makes an absolute distinction between mind, which he defines as unextended, thinking substance, and matter, which he defines as unthinking, extended substance.
[18] They are independent things. In contrast, Aristotle defines matter and the formal/forming principle as complementary
principles which together compose one independent thing (
substance). In short, Aristotle defines matter (roughly speaking) as what things are actually made of (with a
potential independent existence), but Descartes elevates matter to an actual independent thing in itself.
Descartes' justification for restricting the inherent qualities of matter to extension is its permanence, but his real criterion is not permanence (which equally applied to color and resistance), but his desire to use geometry to explain all material properties.
[20] Like Descartes, Hobbes, Boyle, and Locke argued that the inherent properties of bodies were limited to extension, and that so-called secondary qualities, like color, were only products of human perception.
[21]
Isaac Newton (1643–1727) inherited Descartes' mechanical conception of matter. In the third of his "Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy," Newton lists the universal qualities of matter as "extension, hardness, impenetrability, mobility, and inertia."
[22] Similarly in
Optics he conjectures that God created matter as "solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles", which were "even so very hard as never to wear or break in pieces."
[23] The "primary" properties of matter were amenable to mathematical description, unlike "secondary" qualities such as color or taste. Like Descartes, Newton rejected the essential nature of secondary qualities.
[24]
Newton developed Descartes' notion of matter by restoring to matter intrinsic properties in addition to extension (at least on a limited basis), such as mass. Newton's use of gravitational force, which worked "at a distance," effectively repudiated Descartes' mechanics, in which interactions happened exclusively by contact.
[25]
Though Newton's gravity would seem to be a
power of bodies, Newton himself did not admit it to be an
essential property of matter. Carrying the logic forward more consistently,
Joseph Priestley argued that corporeal properties transcend contact mechanics: chemical properties require the
capacity for attraction.
[25] He argued matter has other inherent powers besides the so-called primary qualities of Descartes, et al.
[26]
Since Priestley's time, there has been a massive expansion in knowledge of the constituents of the material world (viz., molecules, atoms, subatomic particles), but there has been no further development in the
definition of matter. Rather the question has been set aside.
Noam Chomsky summarizes the situation that has prevailed since that time:
Late nineteenth and early twentieth centuriesSo matter is whatever physics studies and the object of study of physics is matter: there is no independent general definition of matter, apart from its fitting into the methodology of measurement and controlled experimentation. In sum, the boundaries between what constitutes matter and everything else remains as vague as the
demarcation problem of delimiting science from everything else.
[27]
The common definition in terms of occupying space and having mass is in contrast with most physical and chemical definitions of matter, which rely instead upon its structure and upon attributes not necessarily related to volume and mass. At the turn of the nineteenth century, the knowledge of matter began a rapid evolution.
However, the Newtonian picture was not the whole story. In the 19th century, the term "matter" was actively discussed by a host of scientists and philosophers, and a brief outline can be found in Levere.
[30][further explanation needed] A textbook discussion from 1870 suggests matter is what is made up of atoms:
[31]
Three divisions of matter are recognized in science: masses, molecules and atoms.
A Mass of matter is any portion of matter appreciable by the senses.
A Molecule is the smallest particle of matter into which a body can be divided without losing its identity.
An Atom is a still smaller particle produced by division of a molecule.
Rather than simply having the attributes of mass and occupying space, matter was held to have chemical and electrical properties. The famous physicist
J. J. Thomson wrote about the "constitution of matter" and was concerned with the possible connection between matter and electrical charge.
[32]
Common definition
The
DNA molecule is an example of
matter under the "atoms and molecules" definition.
The common definition of matter is
anything that has both mass and volume (occupies space).
[45][46] For example, a car would be said to be made of matter, as it occupies space, and has mass.
The observation that matter occupies space goes back to antiquity. However, an explanation for why matter occupies space is recent, and is argued to be a result of the
Pauli exclusion principle.
[47][48] Two particular examples where the exclusion principle clearly relates matter to the occupation of space are white dwarf stars and neutron stars, discussed further below.
[edit]Relativity
In the context of
relativity, mass is not an additive quantity.
[1] Thus, in relativity usually a more general view is taken that it is not mass, but the
energy–momentum tensorthat quantifies the amount of matter. Matter therefore is anything that contributes to the energy–momentum of a system, that is, anything that is not purely gravity.
[49][50]This view is commonly held in fields that deal with
general relativity such as
cosmology.
[edit]Atoms and molecules definition
A definition of "matter" that is based upon its physical and chemical structure is:
matter is made up of atoms and molecules.
[51] As an example,
deoxyribonucleic acidmolecules (DNA) are matter under this definition because they are made of atoms. This definition can be extended to include charged atoms and molecules, so as to include
plasmas (gases of ions) and
electrolytes (ionic solutions), which are not obviously included in the atoms and molecules definition. Alternatively, one can adopt the
protons, neutrons and electrons definition.
[edit]Protons, neutrons and electrons definition
A definition of "matter" more fine-scale than the atoms and molecules definition is:
matter is made up of what atoms and molecules are made of, meaning anything made of positively charged
protons, neutral
neutrons, and negatively charged
electrons.
[52] This definition goes beyond atoms and molecules, however, to include substances made from these building blocks that are
not simply atoms or molecules, for example
white dwarf matter — typically, carbon and oxygen nuclei in a sea of degenerate electrons. At a microscopic level, the constituent "particles" of matter such as protons, neutrons and electrons obey the laws of quantum mechanics and exhibit wave–particle duality. At an even deeper level, protons and neutrons are made up of
quarks and the force fields (
gluons) that bind them together (see
Quarks and leptons definition below).
[edit]Quarks and leptons definition
Under the "quarks and leptons" definition, the elementary and composite particles made of the
quarks (in purple) and
leptons (in green) would be "matter"; while the gauge bosons (in red) would not be "matter". However, interaction energy inherent to composite particles (for example, gluons involved in neutrons and protons) contribute to the mass of ordinary matter.
As may be seen from the above discussion, many early definitions of what can be called
ordinary matter were based upon its structure or "building blocks". On the scale of elementary particles, a definition that follows this tradition can be stated as:
ordinary matter is everything that is composed of elementary fermions, namely quarks andleptons.[53][54] The connection between these formulations follows.
Leptons (the most famous being the
electron), and quarks (of which
baryons, such as
protons and
neutrons, are made) combine to form
atoms, which in turn form
molecules. Because atoms and molecules are said to be matter, it is natural to phrase the definition as:
ordinary matter is anything that is made of the same things that atoms and molecules are made of. (However, notice that one also can make from these building blocks matter that is
not atoms or molecules.) Then, because electrons are leptons, and protons and neutrons are made of quarks, this definition in turn leads to the definition of matter as being "quarks and leptons", which are the two types of elementary fermions. Carithers and Grannis state:
Ordinary matter is composed entirely of first-generation particles, namely the [up] and [down] quarks, plus the electron and its neutrino.[55](Higher generations particles quickly decay into first-generation particles, and thus are not commonly encountered.
[56])
This definition of ordinary matter is more subtle than it first appears. All the particles that make up ordinary matter (leptons and quarks) are elementary fermions, while all the
force carriers are elementary bosons.
[57] The
W and Z bosons that mediate the
weak force are not made of quarks or leptons, and so are not ordinary matter, even if they have mass.
[58] In other words,
mass is not something that is exclusive to ordinary matter.
The quark–lepton definition of ordinary matter, however, identifies not only the elementary building blocks of matter, but also includes composites made from the constituents (atoms and molecules, for example). Such composites contain an interaction energy that holds the constituents together, and may constitute the bulk of the mass of the composite. As an example, to a great extent, the mass of an atom is simply the sum of the masses of its constituent protons, neutrons and electrons. However, digging deeper, the protons and neutrons are made up of quarks bound together by gluon fields (see
dynamics of quantum chromodynamics) and these gluons fields contribute significantly to the mass of hadrons.
[59] In other words, most of what composes the "mass" of ordinary matter is due to the
binding energy of quarks within protons and neutrons.
[60] For example, the sum of the mass of the three quarks in a nucleon is approximately
12.5 MeV/c2, which is low compared to the mass of a nucleon (approximately
938 MeV/c2).
[56][61] The bottom line is that most of the mass of everyday objects comes from the interaction energy of its elementary components.
[edit]Smaller building blocks?
[edit]Structure
In particle physics, fermions are particles which obey
Fermi–Dirac statistics. Fermions can be elementary, like the electron, or composite, like the proton and the neutron. In the
Standard Model there are two types of elementary fermions: quarks and leptons, which are discussed next.
Quark properties[64]
| name | symbol | spin | electric charge
(e) | mass
(MeV/c2) | mass comparable to | antiparticle | antiparticle
symbol |
|---|
| up-type quarks |
| up | u | 1⁄2 | +2⁄3 | 1.5 to 3.3 | ~ 5 electrons | antiup | u |
| charm | c | 1⁄2 | +2⁄3 | 1160 to 1340 | ~ 1 proton | anticharm | c |
| top | t | 1⁄2 | +2⁄3 | 169,100 to 173,300 | ~ 180 protons or
~ 1 tungsten atom | antitop | t |
| down-type quarks |
| down | d | 1⁄2 | −1⁄3 | 3.5 to 6.0 | ~ 10 electrons | antidown | d |
| strange | s | 1⁄2 | −1⁄3 | 70 to 130 | ~ 200 electrons | antistrange | s |
| bottom | b | 1⁄2 | −1⁄3 | 4130 to 4370 | ~ 5 protons | antibottom | b |
Quark structure of a proton: 2 up quarks and 1 down quark.
[edit]Baryonic matter
Baryons are strongly interacting fermions, and so are subject to Fermi-Dirac statistics. Amongst the baryons are the protons and neutrons, which occur in atomic nuclei, but many other unstable baryons exist as well. The term
baryon is usually used to refer to triquarks — particles made of three quarks. "Exotic" baryons made of four quarks and one antiquark are known as the pentaquarks, but their existence is not generally accepted.
Baryonic matter is the part of the universe that is made of baryons (including all atoms). This part of the universe does not include
dark energy,
dark matter,
black holes or various forms of degenerate matter, such as compose
white dwarf stars and
neutron stars. Microwave light seen by
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), suggests that only about 4.6% of that part of the universe within range of the best
telescopes (that is, matter that may be visible because light could reach us from it), is made of baryionic matter. About 23% is dark matter, and about 72% is dark energy.
[65]
A comparison between the white dwarf
IK Pegasi B (center), its A-class companion IK Pegasi A (left) and the Sun (right). This white dwarf has a surface temperature of 35,500 K.
[edit]Degenerate matter
In physics,
degenerate matter refers to the ground state of a gas of fermions at a temperature near absolute zero.
[66] The
Pauli exclusion principle requires that only two fermions can occupy a quantum state, one spin-up and the other spin-down. Hence, at zero temperature, the fermions fill up sufficient levels to accommodate all the available fermions, and for the case of many fermions the maximum kinetic energy called the
Fermi energy and the pressure of the gas becomes very large and dependent upon the number of fermions rather than the temperature, unlike normal states of matter.
Degenerate matter is thought to occur during the evolution of heavy stars.
[67] The demonstration by
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar that
white dwarf stars have a maximum allowed mass because of the exclusion principle caused a revolution in the theory of star evolution.
[68]
Degenerate matter includes the part of the universe that is made up of neutron stars and white dwarfs.
[edit]Strange matter
Main article:
Strange matter
Strange matter is a particular form of
quark matter, usually thought of as a 'liquid' of
up,
down, and
strange quarks. It is to be contrasted with
nuclear matter, which is a liquid of
neutronsand
protons (which themselves are built out of up and down quarks), and with non-strange quark matter, which is a quark liquid containing only up and down quarks. At high enough density, strange matter is expected to be
color superconducting. Strange matter is hypothesized to occur in the core of
neutron stars, or, more speculatively, as isolated droplets that may vary in size from
femtometers (
strangelets) to kilometers (
quark stars).
[edit]Two meanings of the term "strange matter"
- The broader meaning is just quark matter that contains three flavors of quarks: up, down, and strange. In this definition, there is a critical pressure and an associated critical density, and when nuclear matter (made of protons andneutrons) is compressed beyond this density, the protons and neutrons dissociate into quarks, yielding quark matter (probably strange matter).
- The narrower meaning is quark matter that is more stable than nuclear matter. The idea that this could happen is the "strange matter hypothesis" of Bodmer[69] and Witten.[70] In this definition, the critical pressure is zero: the true ground state of matter is always quark matter. The nuclei that we see in the matter around us, which are droplets of nuclear matter, are actually metastable, and given enough time (or the right external stimulus) would decay into droplets of strange matter, i.e. strangelets.
[edit]Leptons
Leptons are particles of
spin-1⁄2, meaning that they are
fermions. They carry an
electric charge of −1
e (charged leptons) or 0 e (neutrinos). Unlike quarks, leptons do not carry
colour charge, meaning that they do not experience the
strong interaction. Leptons also undergo radioactive decay, meaning that they are subject to the
weak interaction. Leptons are massive particles, therefore are subject to gravity.
Lepton properties
| name | symbol | spin | electric charge
(e) | mass
(MeV/c2) | mass comparable to | antiparticle | antiparticle
symbol |
|---|
| charged leptons[71] |
| electron | e− | 1⁄2 | −1 | 0.5110 | 1 electron | antielectron | e+ |
| muon | μ− | 1⁄2 | −1 | 105.7 | ~ 200 electrons | antimuon | μ+ |
| tau | Ï„− | 1⁄2 | −1 | 1,777 | ~ 2 protons | antitau | Ï„+ |
| neutrinos[72] |
| electron neutrino | ν
e | 1⁄2 | 0 | < 0.000460 | < 1⁄1000 electron | electron antineutrino | ν
e |
| muon neutrino | ν
μ | 1⁄2 | 0 | < 0.19 | < 1⁄2 electron | muon antineutrino | ν
μ |
| tau neutrino | ν
Ï„ | 1⁄2 | 0 | < 18.2 | < 40 electrons | tau antineutrino | ν
Ï„ |
Main article:
Phase (matter)
Phase diagram for a typical substance at a fixed volume. Vertical axis is
Pressure, horizontal axis is
Temperature. The green line marks the
freezing point (above the green line is
solid, below it is
liquid) and the blue line the
boiling point (above it is
liquid and below it is
gas). So, for example, at higher
T, a higher
P is necessary to maintain the substance in liquid phase. At the
triple point the three phases; liquid, gas and solid; can coexist. Above the
critical point there is no detectable difference between the phases. The dotted line shows the
anomalous behavior of water: ice melts at constant temperature with increasing pressure.
[73]
In
bulk, matter can exist in several different forms, or states of aggregation, known as
phases,
[74] depending on ambient
pressure,
temperature and
volume.
[75] A phase is a form of matter that has a relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties (such as
density,
specific heat,
refractive index, and so forth). These phases include the three familiar ones (
solids,
liquids, and
gases), as well as more exotic states of matter ( such as
plasmas,
superfluids,
supersolids,
Bose–Einstein condensates, ...). A
fluid may be a liquid, gas or plasma. There are also
paramagnetic and
ferromagnetic phases of
magnetic materials. As conditions change, matter may change from one phase into another. These phenomena are called
phase transitions, and are studied in the field of
thermodynamics. In nanomaterials, the vastly increased ratio of surface area to volume results in matter that can exhibit properties entirely different from those of bulk material, and not well described by any bulk phase (see
nanomaterials for more details).
Phases are sometimes called
states of matter, but this term can lead to confusion with
thermodynamic states. For example, two gases maintained at different pressures are in different
thermodynamic states (different pressures), but in the same
phase (both are gases).
[edit]Antimatter
In
particle physics and
quantum chemistry,
antimatter is matter that is composed of the
antiparticles of those that constitute ordinary matter. If a particle and its antiparticle come into contact with each other, the two
annihilate; that is, they may both be converted into other particles with equal
energy in accordance with
Einstein's equation
E = mc2. These new particles may be high-energy
photons (
gamma rays) or other particle–antiparticle pairs. The resulting particles are endowed with an amount of kinetic energy equal to the difference between the
rest mass of the products of the annihilation and the rest mass of the original particle-antiparticle pair, which is often quite large.
Antimatter is not found naturally on Earth, except very briefly and in vanishingly small quantities (as the result of
radioactive decay,
lightning or
cosmic rays). This is because antimatter which came to exist on Earth outside the confines of a suitable physics laboratory would almost instantly meet the ordinary matter that Earth is made of, and be annihilated. Antiparticles and some stable antimatter (such as
antihydrogen) can be made in tiny amounts, but not in enough quantity to do more than test a few of its theoretical properties.
There is considerable speculation both in
science and
science fiction as to why the observable universe is apparently almost entirely matter, and whether other places are almost entirely antimatter instead. In the early universe, it is thought that matter and antimatter were equally represented, and the disappearance of antimatter requires an asymmetry in physical laws called the charge parity (or
CP symmetry) violation. CP symmetry violation can be obtained from the Standard Model,
[76] but at this time the apparent
asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the great
unsolved problems in physics. Possible processes by which it came about are explored in more detail under
baryogenesis.
[edit]Other types of matter
Pie chart showing the fractions of energy in the universe contributed by different sources.
Ordinary matter is divided into
luminous matter (the stars and luminous gases and 0.005% radiation) and
nonluminous matter (intergalactic gas and about 0.1% neutrinos and 0.04% supermassive black holes). Ordinary matter is uncommon. Modeled after Ostriker and Steinhardt.
[77] For more information, see
NASA.
Galaxy rotation curve for the Milky Way. Vertical axis is speed of rotation about the galactic center. Horizontal axis is distance from the galactic center. The sun is marked with a yellow ball. The observed curve of speed of rotation is blue. The predicted curve based upon stellar mass and gas in the Milky Way is red. The difference is due to
dark matter or perhaps a modification of the
law of gravity.
[82][83][84]Scatter in observations is indicated roughly by gray bars.
[edit]Dark matter
In
astrophysics and
cosmology,
dark matter is matter of unknown composition that does not emit or reflect enough electromagnetic radiation to be observed directly, but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter.
[11][85] Observational evidence of the early universe and the
big bang theory require that this matter have energy and mass, but is not composed of either elementary fermions (as above) OR gauge bosons. The commonly accepted view is that most of the dark-matter is
non-baryonic in nature.
[11] As such, it is composed of particles as yet unobserved in the laboratory. Perhaps they are
supersymmetric particles,
[86] which are not
Standard Model particles, but relics formed at very high energies in the early phase of the universe and still floating about.
[11]
[edit]Dark energy
Main article:
Dark energy
In
cosmology,
dark energy is the name given to the antigravitating influence that is accelerating the rate of
expansion of the universe. It is known not to be composed of known particles like protons, neutrons or electrons, nor of the particles of dark matter, because these all gravitate.
[87][88]
Fully 70% of the matter density in the universe appears to be in the form of dark energy. Twenty-six percent is dark matter. Only 4% is ordinary matter. So less than 1 part in 20 is made out of matter we have observed experimentally or described in the
standard model of particle physics. Of the other 96%, apart from the properties just mentioned, we know absolutely nothing.
[edit]Exotic matter
Main article:
Exotic matter
Exotic matter is a hypothetical concept of
particle physics. It covers any material which violates one or more classical conditions or is not made of known
baryonic particles. Such materials would possess qualities like negative mass or being repelled rather than attracted by gravity.
[edit]See also
Antimatter
|
Cosmology
|
Dark matter
|
Philosophy
Other
|
|
[edit]References
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- ^ "Matter (physics)". McGraw-Hill's Access Science: Encyclopedia of Science and Technology Online. Retrieved 2009-05-24.
- ^ J. Mongillo (2007). Nanotechnology 101. Greenwood Publishing. p. 30. ISBN 0-313-33880-9.
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- ^ G. 't Hooft (1997). In search of the ultimate building blocks. Cambridge University Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-521-57883-3.
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- ^ a b S. Weinberg (1998). The Quantum Theory of Fields. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-521-55002-5.
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- ^ a b c d D. Majumdar (2007). "Dark matter — possible candidates and direct detection". arXiv:hep-ph/0703310 [hep-ph].
- ^ S. Toulmin, J. Goodfield (1962). The Architecture of Matter. University of Chicago Press. pp. 48–54.
- ^ Discussed by Aristotle in Physics, esp. book I, but also later; as well as Metaphysics I-II.
- ^ For a good explanation and elaboration, see R.J. Connell (1966). Matter and Becoming. Priory Press.
- ^ H.G. Liddell, R. Scott, J.M. Whiton (1891). A lexicon abridged from Liddell & Scott's Greek-English lexicon. Harper and Brothers. p. 725.
- ^ R. Descartes (1644). "The Principles of Human Knowledge". Principles of Philosophy I. p. 53.
- ^ though even this property seems to be non-essential (Rene Descartes, Principles of Philosophy II [1644], “On the Principles of Material Things,” no. 4.)
- ^ R. Descartes (1644). "The Principles of Human Knowledge". Principles of Philosophy I. pp. 8, 54, 63.
- ^ D.L. Schindler (1986). "The Problem of Mechanism". In D.L. Schindler. Beyond Mechanism. University Press of America.
- ^ E.A. Burtt, Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science (Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1954), 117-118.
- ^ J.E. McGuire and P.M. Heimann, "The Rejection of Newton's Concept of Matter in the Eighteenth Century," The Concept of Matter in Modern Philosophy ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1978), 104-118 (105).
- ^ Isaac Newton, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, trans. A. Motte, revised by F. Cajori (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1934), pp. 398-400. Further analyzed by Maurice A. Finocchiaro, "Newton's Third Rule of Philosophizing: A Role for Logic in Historiography," Isis 65:1 (Mar. 1974), pp. 66-73.
- ^ Isaac Newton, Optics, Book III, pt. 1, query 31.
- ^ McGuire and Heimann, 104.
- ^ a b c N. Chomsky (1988). Language and problems of knowledge: the Managua lectures (2nd ed.). MIT Press. p. 144. ISBN 0-262-53070-8.
- ^ McGuire and Heimann, 113.
- ^ Nevertheless, it remains true that the mathematization regarded as requisite for a modern physical theory carries its own implicit notion of matter, which is very like Descartes', despite the demonstrated vacuity of the latter's notions.
- ^ M. Wenham (2005). Understanding Primary Science: Ideas, Concepts and Explanations (2nd ed.). Paul Chapman Educational Publishing. p. 115. ISBN 1-4129-0163-4.
- ^ J.C. Maxwell (1876). Matter and Motion. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. p. 18. ISBN 0-486-66895-9.
- ^ T.H. Levere (1993). "Introduction". Affinity and Matter: Elements of Chemical Philosophy, 1800–1865. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 2-88124-583-8.
- ^ G.F. Barker (1870). "Introduction". A Text Book of Elementary Chemistry: Theoretical and Inorganic. John P. Morton and Company. p. 2.
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- ^ O.W. Richardson (1914). "Chapter 1". The Electron Theory of Matter. The University Press.
- ^ M. Jacob (1992). The Quark Structure of Matter. World Scientific. ISBN 981-02-3687-5.
- ^ V. de Sabbata, M. Gasperini (1985). Introduction to Gravitation. World Scientific. p. 293. ISBN 9971-5-0049-3.
- ^ The history of the concept of matter is a history of the fundamental length scales used to define matter. Different building blocks apply depending upon whether one defines matter on an atomic or elementary particle level. One may use a definition that matter is atoms, or that matter is hadrons, or that matter is leptons and quarks depending upon the scale at which one wishes to define matter. B. Povh, K. Rith, C. Scholz, F. Zetsche, M. Lavelle (2004)."Fundamental constituents of matter". Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts (4th ed.).Springer. ISBN 3-540-20168-8.
- ^ J. Allday (2001). Quarks, Leptons and the Big Bang. CRC Press. p. 12. ISBN 0-7503-0806-0.
- ^ B.A. Schumm (2004). Deep Down Things: The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 57. ISBN 0-8018-7971-X.
- ^ See for example, M. Jibu, K. Yasue (1995). Quantum Brain Dynamics and Consciousness. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 62. ISBN 1-55619-183-9., B. Martin (2009). Nuclear and Particle Physics (2nd ed.). Wiley. p. 125. ISBN 0-470-74275-5. and K.W. Plaxco, M. Gross (2006). Astrobiology: A Brief Introduction. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-8018-8367-9.
- ^ P.A. Tipler, R.A. Llewellyn (2002). Modern Physics. Macmillan. pp. 89–91, 94–95. ISBN 0-7167-4345-0.
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- ^ P.M. Chaikin, T.C. Lubensky (2000). Principles of Condensed Matter Physics. Cambridge University Press. p. xvii.ISBN 0-521-79450-1.
- ^ W. Greiner (2003). W. Greiner, M.G. Itkis, G. Reinhardt, M.C. Güçlü. ed. Structure and Dynamics of Elementary Matter. Springer. p. xii. ISBN 1-4020-2445-2.
- ^ P. Sukys (1999). Lifting the Scientific Veil: Science Appreciation for the Nonscientist. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 87.ISBN 0-8476-9600-6.
- ^ S.M. Walker, A. King (2005). What is Matter?. Lerner Publications. p. 7. ISBN 0-8225-5131-4.
- ^ J.Kenkel, P.B. Kelter, D.S. Hage (2000). Chemistry: An Industry-based Introduction with CD-ROM. CRC Press. p. 2. ISBN 1-56670-303-4. "All basic science textbooks define matter as simply the collective aggregate of all material substances that occupy space and have mass or weight."
- ^ K.A. Peacock (2008). The Quantum Revolution: A Historical Perspective. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 47.ISBN 0-313-33448-X.
- ^ M.H. Krieger (1998). Constitutions of Matter: Mathematically Modeling the Most Everyday of Physical Phenomena.University of Chicago Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-226-45305-7.
- ^ S.M. Caroll (2004). Spacetime and Geometry. Addison Wesley. pp. 163–164. ISBN 0-8053-8732-3.
- ^ P. Davies (1992). The New Physics: A Synthesis. Cambridge University Press. p. 499. ISBN 0-521-43831-4. "Matter fields: the fields whose quanta describe the elementary particles that make up the material content of the Universe (as opposed to the gravitons and their supersymmetric partners)."
- ^ G.F. Barker (1870). "Divisions of matter". A text-book of elementary chemistry: theoretical and inorganic. John F Morton & Co.. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4460-2206-1.
- ^ M. de Podesta (2002). Understanding the Properties of Matter (2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-415-25788-3.
- ^ B. Povh, K. Rith, C. Scholz, F. Zetsche, M. Lavelle (2004). "Part I: Analysis: The building blocks of matter". Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts (4th ed.). Springer. ISBN 3-540-20168-8.
- ^ B. Carithers, P. Grannis (1995). "Discovery of the Top Quark". Beam Line (SLAC) 25 (3): 4–16.
- ^ See p.7 in B. Carithers, P. Grannis (1995). "Discovery of the Top Quark". Beam Line (SLAC) 25 (3): 4–16.
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- ^ L. Smolin (2007). The Trouble with Physics: The Rise of String Theory, the Fall of a Science, and What Comes Next. Mariner Books. p. 67. ISBN 0-618-91868-X.
- ^ The W boson mass is 80.398 GeV; see Figure 1 in C. Amsler et al. (Particle Data Group) (2008). "Review of Particle Physics: The Mass and Width of the W Boson". Physics Letters B 667: 1. Bibcode 2008PhLB..667....1P.doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018.
- ^ I.J.R. Aitchison, A.J.G. Hey (2004). Gauge Theories in Particle Physics. CRC Press. p. 48. ISBN 0-7503-0864-8.
- ^ B. Povh, K. Rith, C. Scholz, F. Zetsche, M. Lavelle (2004). Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts. Springer. p. 103. ISBN 3-540-20168-8=.
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- ^ Y. Ne'eman, Y. Kirsh (1996). The Particle Hunters (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 276. ISBN 0-521-47686-0. "[T]he most natural explanation to the existence of higher generations of quarks and leptons is that they correspond to excited states of the first generation, and experience suggests that excited systems must be composite"
- ^ C. Amsler et al. (Particle Data Group) (2008). "Reviews of Particle Physics: Quarks". Physics Letters B 667: 1.Bibcode 2008PhLB..667....1P. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018.
- ^ "Five Year Results on the Oldest Light in the Universe". NASA. 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-02.
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- ^ A. Bodmer (1971). "Collapsed Nuclei". Physical Review D 4 (6): 1601. Bibcode 1971PhRvD...4.1601B.doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.4.1601.
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- ^ C. Amsler et al. (Particle Data Group) (2008). "Review of Particle Physics: Neutrinos Properties". Physics Letters B 667: 1. Bibcode 2008PhLB..667....1P. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018.
- ^ S.R. Logan (1998). Physical Chemistry for the Biomedical Sciences. CRC Press. pp. 110–111. ISBN 0-7484-0710-3.
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- ^ J.P. Ostriker, P.J. Steinhardt (2003). "New Light on Dark Matter". Science 300 (5627): 1909–13. arXiv:astro-ph/0306402. Bibcode 2003Sci...300.1909O. doi:10.1126/science.1085976. PMID 12817140.
- ^ K. Pretzl (2004). "Dark Matter, Massive Neutrinos and Susy Particles". Structure and Dynamics of Elementary Matter. Walter Greiner. p. 289. ISBN 1-4020-2446-0.
- ^ K. Freeman, G. McNamara (2006). "What can the matter be?". In Search of Dark Matter. Birkhäuser Verlag. p. 105. ISBN 0-387-27616-5.
- ^ J.C. Wheeler (2007). Cosmic Catastrophes: Exploding Stars, Black Holes, and Mapping the Universe. Cambridge University Press. p. 282. ISBN 0-521-85714-7.
- ^ J. Gribbin (2007). The Origins of the Future: Ten Questions for the Next Ten Years. Yale University Press. p. 151.ISBN 0-300-12596-8.
- ^ P. Schneider (2006). Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology. Springer. p. 4, Fig. 1.4. ISBN 3-540-33174-3.
- ^ T. Koupelis, K.F. Kuhn (2007). In Quest of the Universe. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 492; Fig. 16.13. ISBN 0-7637-4387-9.
- ^ M.H. Jones, R.J. Lambourne, D.J. Adams (2004). An Introduction to Galaxies and Cosmology. Cambridge University Press. p. 21; Fig. 1.13. ISBN 0-521-54623-0.
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- ^ L. Smolin (2007). The Trouble with Physics. Mariner Books. p. 16. ISBN 0-618-91868-X.
[edit]Further reading
- Lillian Hoddeson, Michael Riordan, ed. (1997). The Rise of the Standard Model. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57816-7.
- Timothy Paul Smith (2004). "The search for quarks in ordinary matter". Hidden Worlds. Princeton University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-691-05773-7.
- Harald Fritzsch (2005). Elementary Particles: Building blocks of matter. World Scientific. p. 1. ISBN 981-256-141-2.
- Bertrand Russell (1992). "The philosophy of matter". A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz (Reprint of 1937 2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 88. ISBN 0-415-08296-X.
- Stephen Toulmin and June Goodfield, The Architecture of Matter (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).
- Richard J. Connell, Matter and Becoming (Chicago: The Priory Press, 1966).
- Ernan McMullin, The Concept of Matter in Greek and Medieval Philosophy (Notre Dame, IN: Univ. of Notre Dame Press, 1965).
- Ernan McMullin, The Concept of Matter in Modern Philosophy (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1978).
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